Edexcel AS-Level History:
The Experience Of Warfare in Britain 1854-1929
The Crimean War 1854-1856
Crimean War Timeline
1853
30 November - Turkish fleet destroyed at the Battle of Sinope by the Russians
1854
May - British army landed at Varna
28 June - British forces receive orders to invade the Crimea
5 September - Allies leave Varna for Crimea
20 September - Battle of Alma
24 September - Seige of Sebastopol begins
17 October - 1st bombardment of Sebastopol
24 + 25 October - Battle of Balaclava
5 November - Battle of Inkerman
1855
January-March - Horrific Russian winter
8 March - Fenton arrives at Balaclava
9 September - Sebastopol is evacuated by the Russians
1856
29 February - Armistice in the Crimea
30 March - The Treaty of Paris is signed
30 November - Turkish fleet destroyed at the Battle of Sinope by the Russians
1854
May - British army landed at Varna
28 June - British forces receive orders to invade the Crimea
5 September - Allies leave Varna for Crimea
20 September - Battle of Alma
24 September - Seige of Sebastopol begins
17 October - 1st bombardment of Sebastopol
24 + 25 October - Battle of Balaclava
5 November - Battle of Inkerman
1855
January-March - Horrific Russian winter
8 March - Fenton arrives at Balaclava
9 September - Sebastopol is evacuated by the Russians
1856
29 February - Armistice in the Crimea
30 March - The Treaty of Paris is signed
Unit 1
What caused the Crimean War?
Power, Fear and Control were the main causes of the Crimean War.
The Russian Empire had majorly grown in Europe and its army was advancing through central Asia, presenting a double threat to Britain:
The Russian Tsar wanted to carve up the Turkish Empire as quickly as he could because he believe that the Tukish Empire was weak, and so wanted Russia to gain all or atleast part of it. This was because Turkey controlled the exit from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean and Russia wanted ice-free ports for its fleet, which is exactly what Turkey could provide for them.
HOWEVER
Britain desperately wanted to stop this from happening because it needed the area around the Black Sea to remain in friendly hands as it was their best route to India.
A dispute occured when Russia said that it needed to protect the Greek Orthodox Christians in Turkey, which was mainly Muslim.
At the same time France and Russia engaged in a dispute because of a disagreement over who held the keys to the Church Of The Holy Sepulchre which was in the Turkish Empire.
This resulted in the Crimean War with Russia on one side and Turkey, Britain and France on the other.
The Russian Empire had majorly grown in Europe and its army was advancing through central Asia, presenting a double threat to Britain:
- British Politicains beleived that Brit interests in India were becoming threatened by the Russians advance.
- They also believed that the prospect of Russian control of the Black Sea would threaten Britains short land route to India
The Russian Tsar wanted to carve up the Turkish Empire as quickly as he could because he believe that the Tukish Empire was weak, and so wanted Russia to gain all or atleast part of it. This was because Turkey controlled the exit from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean and Russia wanted ice-free ports for its fleet, which is exactly what Turkey could provide for them.
HOWEVER
Britain desperately wanted to stop this from happening because it needed the area around the Black Sea to remain in friendly hands as it was their best route to India.
A dispute occured when Russia said that it needed to protect the Greek Orthodox Christians in Turkey, which was mainly Muslim.
At the same time France and Russia engaged in a dispute because of a disagreement over who held the keys to the Church Of The Holy Sepulchre which was in the Turkish Empire.
- The French supported the Catholics
- The Russians supported the Orthodox Monks
- The Turkish Sultan in 1852 decided to favour the Catholic Monks
This resulted in the Crimean War with Russia on one side and Turkey, Britain and France on the other.
Reporting the War
Roger Fenton
A Self-Portrait of Roger Fenton
- 1819-1869
- Born in Lancashire
- He studied in London and Paris where he developed a fascination with photography
- Founded Royal Photographic Society in 1853
- Thomas Agnew & Sons of Mancester wanted to produce an albumn of photos from the Crimean War that would be suitable for sale, and Fenton jumped at the oppourtunity to do this
- He was told not to take photos of the horrors of war
- He arrived at Balaclava in March 1855 and stayed until June
- He took nearly 400 useable photos whilst he was there, most of which were exhibited in London in October 1855 before being taken on tour throughout Britain.
William Howard Russell
William Howard Russell
- 1820-1907
- Born in Dublin
- Worked as a correspondant for The Times newspaper from 1841
- He was sent to the Crimea by The Times and therefore was the first professional journalist to report on a war
- He went without permission from the Army or the Government
- His reports exposed appalling conditions and administration imcompetance
- The reports he sent to England shocked the British public and did alot to turn the public against the war
- Russell left the Crimea for good in December 1855
- In 1895 he was given a knighthood
The Battle of Alma - 22 September 1854
The Battle of Alma stems from the Russian commander Menshikov deciding not to attack the British and French during their first day marching south on September 19th. The course of events he chose to instigate instead are as follows:
- He and his troops took up positions 3 miles south of the Alma River
- The French and British commanders halted their troops close to the water ready for the inevitable battle the next day
- Here cholera began to take its toll on the troops
- The French commander rode over to discuss strategy and tactics with Lord Raglan, who assured him that the British would cooperate
- Raglan did not tell the divisional commanders of the French plans, instead he had plans of his own
- Also, there had been no proper reconnaissance (a search made for military information in the field, such as examining the groud)
- Raglan had no idea of the strength of the Russian opposing forces, and one part of the battle had escaped him - if the Allies were defeated in the first encounter then the war would be over BUT if the Allies won the way would be open for an advance of Sebastopol, the whole object of the campaign
- The Russians were so confident they would win that spectators came to watch
- The French began the attack following their commanders battle plan but were soon pinned down
- The British went for full frontal assault and they won
- The Russians were forced to flee with 1,755 men dead and 6,000 injured
- The way to Sebastopol was opened
The Battle Of Balaclava - 25 October 1854
The Russians were desperate to break the Allies seige of Sebastopol and began to advance with 25,000 men on the British supply base at the port of Balaclava.
The Thin Red Line
The Thin Red Line, painted by Robert Gibb in 1881
On the morning of the charge of the Light Brigade the Russian cavalry advance on Balaclava was halted by the 93rd Highland regiment. Their commander Sir Colin Campbell decided against using the traditional square formation for the charge, instead opting for his troops to form a long line, two men deep.
William Russell who was watching from the hills above commented 'only a thin red streak tipped with a line of steel' stood between the Russian cavalry and the defenceless British base of Balaclava.
As Russell watched, the 93rd stopped the Russian advance, leaving them to be routed by Lucan's Heavy Brigade.
William Russell who was watching from the hills above commented 'only a thin red streak tipped with a line of steel' stood between the Russian cavalry and the defenceless British base of Balaclava.
As Russell watched, the 93rd stopped the Russian advance, leaving them to be routed by Lucan's Heavy Brigade.
The Charge of the Light Brigade
The charge of the Light Brigade, from the Russian perspective, by William Simpson in 1855
During the Battle of Balaclava Lord Raglan ordered Lord Lucan, his cavalry commander, to stop the Russians from removing a captured cannon from the Causeway Heights that overlooked two valleys close to Balaclava.
Confusion between the commanders, centering on the gestures of the bearer of the written order, Captain Nolan, and the verbal explanation he gave, lead Lord Lucan to send the Light Brigade up the wrong valley and against the wrong guns.
What happened has become a by-word for military failure.
118 men were killed, 127 wounded and 60 taken prisoner
Confusion between the commanders, centering on the gestures of the bearer of the written order, Captain Nolan, and the verbal explanation he gave, lead Lord Lucan to send the Light Brigade up the wrong valley and against the wrong guns.
What happened has become a by-word for military failure.
118 men were killed, 127 wounded and 60 taken prisoner
The Impact of the Russian Winter - January 1855
The British troops did not just have to worry about their Russian enemies, they also had the weather to contend with, which was at its worst in January 1885, at the same time as it became clear that the British Army was no longer effective or functioning properly as a military force.
The Army was facing a multitude if problems such as:
The Army was facing a multitude if problems such as:
- Lack of food
- Lack of suitable clothing for the horrendous Russian winter
- Unsuitable accomodation for the time of year and weather conditions
- Terrible weather conditions such as snow, wind, icy-cold temperatures
- Loss of men due to poor conditions etc.
The Impact of Reportage
William Russell
Russell's frank revolations about the military mismanagement and administrative incompetance in the Crimean War shocked middle-class Victorian England.
His graphic descriptions of the horrors of the war were very different to the image of the war that had previously been presented to the public, in which the war was presented as heroic and brave.
This reporting from Russell undermined the government's presentation of the war and ruined the reputation of Lord Raglan, among others.
His graphic descriptions of the horrors of the war were very different to the image of the war that had previously been presented to the public, in which the war was presented as heroic and brave.
This reporting from Russell undermined the government's presentation of the war and ruined the reputation of Lord Raglan, among others.
Roger Fenton
Fenton had two main problems to contend with during his time in the Crimea:
He became bored of simply photographing officers and ships, so asked a friend to take him to photograph a 'good view'. His friend took him to a narrow ravine between the British camps and the Russian fortifications. He was amazed at what he saw, a place that the soldiers described as 'The Valley of the Shadow of Death'. To these soldiers it was a well known place, and Fenton was able to make it known to all their families back home in Britain.
- Although he was there to report on the war he was banned from photographing horrific images such as dead bodies
- Photographic technology was not advanced enough to allow him to take pictures in which the sublects were moving
He became bored of simply photographing officers and ships, so asked a friend to take him to photograph a 'good view'. His friend took him to a narrow ravine between the British camps and the Russian fortifications. He was amazed at what he saw, a place that the soldiers described as 'The Valley of the Shadow of Death'. To these soldiers it was a well known place, and Fenton was able to make it known to all their families back home in Britain.
Unit 2
How well supplied were the troops?
As we already know from the Unit 1 section, troops in the Crimea were not very well supplied. however, there is some controversy over who was to blame. Was it the weather or was it human error?
Human Error
- Lord Raglan - He didn't think that the the Army would fail to take Sebastopol before the winter and so didn't inform Filder, the head of the commissariat, that the Army would be wintering in the Crimea until 8th November, meaning that Filder was left with no time to make adequate preperations for the troops
- Lord Cardigan was spending days at a time on his yacht, and so often had no idea how bad the situation was, and would also not allow the Light Brigade to move the camp to Balaclava where the horses could be fed
- Port authorities at Balaclava, namely Captain Christie, refused to allow ships in during the storm
Weather
- The road from the harbour to the camp was impassable because of heavy rain
- A lot of horses died because they had no shelter - meaning that there was no way of transporting food up to the camp
- Crimea hit by tremendous storm
The Reaction in Britain
William Russell brought the horrors of the Crimean War to the attention of everyone back in Britian.
In direct response to to the Crimean dispatches printed in The Times, Sir Robert Peel, the son of the former Prime Minister, sent the paper £200 for supplying 'comforts' to the sick and wounded - this formed the basis for the 'Crimea Fund', which quickly managed to raise over £7,000 for the cause.
This is just one example of the reaction and generosity of people back home, there are many many more.
In direct response to to the Crimean dispatches printed in The Times, Sir Robert Peel, the son of the former Prime Minister, sent the paper £200 for supplying 'comforts' to the sick and wounded - this formed the basis for the 'Crimea Fund', which quickly managed to raise over £7,000 for the cause.
This is just one example of the reaction and generosity of people back home, there are many many more.
Medical Services in the Crimea
Organisation of the Medical Services
In February 1853 the Army Medical Department and the Ordnance Medical Department were combined together to make one department, under Dr. Andrew Smith. This new department only had six members of staff.
Why was this not done earlier?
It was impossible to amalgamate these two departments any earlier then they were because of the Duke of Wellington, who was opposed to any reform of the Army's medical services.
Dr. Andrew Smith's new department
Smith and his team had to create a war-ready medical department from scratch.
To begin with he had no wagons, no base hospitals, no doctors and no-one to carry the stretchers.
Why was this not done earlier?
It was impossible to amalgamate these two departments any earlier then they were because of the Duke of Wellington, who was opposed to any reform of the Army's medical services.
Dr. Andrew Smith's new department
Smith and his team had to create a war-ready medical department from scratch.
To begin with he had no wagons, no base hospitals, no doctors and no-one to carry the stretchers.
Where were hospitals established?
The major base hospital was established at Scutari. The old Ottoman barracks were converted into the Barrack hospital by the British, and could accomodate about 6,000 men at one time.
In the Crimea itself there were 4 hospitals set up for the sick and wouded:
1) The General Hospital - opened in September 1854
2) The Castle Hospital - opened in April 1855
- 2,500 beds
3) The Land Transport Corps hospital - Karani
4) A convalescent hospital was established at the St. George Monastery
In the Crimea itself there were 4 hospitals set up for the sick and wouded:
1) The General Hospital - opened in September 1854
2) The Castle Hospital - opened in April 1855
- 2,500 beds
3) The Land Transport Corps hospital - Karani
4) A convalescent hospital was established at the St. George Monastery
Medical Treatments
~ The treatments that were used in the Crimea were very similar to those that were used in hospitals back in Britain.
~ The main form of treatment was the amputation of limbs - carrying a 25% death rate, usually from either shock or infection.
~ Anaesthesia was used in the Crimea, however this was only Chloroform and its impact was very limited. There was also a belief among many of the medical staff that the use of anaesthetics during operations weakened the patient, meaning they were not used as often as they could have been
~ Sufficient supplies did not get to the hospitals very often.
~ The main form of treatment was the amputation of limbs - carrying a 25% death rate, usually from either shock or infection.
~ Anaesthesia was used in the Crimea, however this was only Chloroform and its impact was very limited. There was also a belief among many of the medical staff that the use of anaesthetics during operations weakened the patient, meaning they were not used as often as they could have been
~ Sufficient supplies did not get to the hospitals very often.
Problems with Water and Sanitation
+ Lack of washing facilities lead to lice, typhus and typhoid
+ Lack of sanitation lead to dysentry and cholera
+ 16,297 men died from their wounds or disease, out of the 18,058 men who died in the Crimea
+ Lack of sanitation lead to dysentry and cholera
+ 16,297 men died from their wounds or disease, out of the 18,058 men who died in the Crimea
Florence Nightengale posted to the Crimea
Florence Nightengale
Florence Nightengale was asked to head the nurses at the Scutari Barrack Hospital, with no other candidates asked to apply for the position.
She went to the Crimea with a team of 38 nurses, who were hand selected for the job by a committee.
Her brief was clear - she was only in charge of the nurses and was herself under the authority of Dr. Menzies, the medical officer.
She went to the Crimea with a team of 38 nurses, who were hand selected for the job by a committee.
Her brief was clear - she was only in charge of the nurses and was herself under the authority of Dr. Menzies, the medical officer.
Mary Sealcole - The real Angel of Mercy???
A warercolour painting of Mary Seacole
At the time of the Crimean war people believed that Mary Seacole was the real angel of mercy.